The Future is Personalized Medicine Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

The Future is Personalized Medicine - Essay Example Pharmacogenomics and pharmacogenetics, which are expected to be at the core of PM, combine to offer several advantages over conventional clinical methods. For example, while pharmacogenomics is limited to identifyng 'inheritable response' to medication across the whole genome, pharmacogenetics studies the effects of medication at the level of individual genes (the chart below outlines how it operates). The former also tries to reveal important links between genomic patterns and clinical responses. Such links are crucial sources of medical knowledge, as they empower clinicians to choose a particular treatment option based on individual patient condition as opposed to adopting a formulaic trial-and-error approach. (Hood, 2003, p.582) The Human Genome Project (HGP), initiated and supported by former American President Bill Clinton was pivotal to subsequent breakthroughs in Personalized Medicine. With the help of advanced computing power, already more than 3 billion base pairs of DNA hav e been successfully mapped. With the completion of the HGP in 2003, new possibilities for PM have been opened up. Working expeditiously to make Personalized Medicine a reality in the near future are such organizations as the International HapMap Project, the NIH Encyclopedia of DNA Elements (ENCODE), the Roadmap Epigenomics Program, etc. (Cox, et. al., 2007, p.112) In order to understand the scope and effectiveness of Personalized Medicine, let us take a hypothetical case. For instance, in the case of oncology treatment, where presently oral-intake medicines can cost hundreds (if not thousands) of dollars per year for the afflicted patient, understanding the intricate 'genetic pathways' (which is unique to each individual) is important in order to determine the probable efficacy of a particular therapy course. It is a sign of progress that in the United States today â€Å"there are 6 drugs for which FDA requires diagnostic genetic testing before prescription, about 30 for which a d iagnostic test is recommended, and another 200 with pharmacogenomic information on the labels.† (Hesselgrave, 2010, p.16) Moreover, traditional healthcare provision adopts an one-size-fits-all approach. Whereas, under Personalized Medicine, this practice will be dismantled and unique prognostic courses would be designed based on the patient's genetic make up. Powerful technologies that try to understand the working of the human body down to the cellular level will be part of future PM treatments. These technologies include genomics, proteomics (the study of proteins), and metabolomics (the study of metabolites) amongst others. Metabolomics is of special interest to physicians as it has the potential to provide key information about individual patients. While the purpose of proteomics research is to identify abnormal protein patterns in patients, the purpose of metabolomic research is to identify abnormal metabolite patterns. Scientists are of the view that human bodies contain more than 3,000 metabolites that play a crucial role in proper growth and development of various organs. Apart from these primary metabolites there are secondary metabolites which strenghthen the immune system and helps reduce mental and physical stress. Of particular interest to the medical community are low-molecular-weight metabolites

Hamburger Hill Essay Example for Free

Hamburger Hill Essay The entire mountain is a rugged, uninviting wilderness blanketed in double- and triple-canopy jungle, dense thickets of bamboo, and waist-high elephant grass. Local Montagnard tribesmen called Ap Bia â€Å"the mountain of the crouching beast. † LTC Weldon Honeycutt, commander of the 3d Battalion, 187th Infantry (the â€Å"Rakkasans†), called it â€Å"Hill 937. † The Soldiers who fought there dubbed it â€Å"Hamburger Hill. † The ? ght on Hamburger Hill occurred during Operation Apache Snow, the second part of a three-phased campaign intended to destroy North Vietnam Army (NVA) bases in the treacherous A Shau Valley. The American and South Vietnamese units participating in Apache Snow knew, based on existing intelligence and previous experiences in the A Shau, that they were in for a tough ? ght. Beyond that, however, they had little evidence as to the enemy’s actual strength and dispositions. Masters of camou? age, the NVA completely concealed their bases from aerial surveillance. When the NVA moved, they did so at night along trails covered by triple-canopy jungle, again confounding observation from above. They effected their command and control mainly by runner and wire, leaving no electronic signature for the Americans to monitor or trace. Technology, therefore, provided scant assistance to the American battalion commander trying to â€Å"see the enemy† during Apache Snow. He had to generate his own tacticalintelligence. Patrols, captured equipment, installations, documents, and occasionally prisoners provided combat commanders with the raw data from which to draw their assessment of the enemy order of battle and dispositions. Gathering this information took time, though. Moreover, intelligence about the enemy’s strength and dispositions did not necessarily illuminate his commander’s intent. It took days to ascertain this, and the learning experience proved decidedly unpleasant for the Americans. On 11 May, Honeycutt dispersed his Rakkasans and scoured the vicinity to the north and northwest of Ap Bia Mountain. When Bravo Company made heavy contact with some NVA late in the day, Honeycutt adjusted his estimate of the enemy’s strength from â€Å"a few trail watchers† to a reinforced platoon or even a company. The Rakkasans could still deal with a force that size, but they would have to concentrate to do so. For the next three days, Honeycutt fought the mountain and the NVA to bring his scattered companies together for a coordinated battalion attack. Despite the fact that, since the initial assault, no company was more than about 1,500 meters from the crest of the mountain, it took two days to consolidate the battalion for a three-company assault. Time and again, the American infantrymen found themselves hampered as much by the topography as by the enemy. The rugged terrain slowed dismounted movement to a crawl. Between 12 and 14 May, for example, Delta Company was virtually immobilized when it went down a steep ravine and was caught there by the enemy. In one grueling ? ve-hour period, the company labored to advance a total of only 500 meters. The steep, mud-covered slopes, more than the enemy, kept this company from ful? lling Honeycutt’s intent. In the end, the troops had to abandon their attack and withdraw the way they had come. These three days were a period of intensely unpleasant â€Å"discovery learning† for Honeycutt and his men. Map reconnaissance and helicopter over-? ights did not indicate that his initial scheme of maneuver was impractical. It took Delta Company’s three-day ordeal to do so. Though Honeycutt had a long and distinguished record as a combat commander in both Vietnam and Korea, he underestimated Ap Bia Mountain and the NVA facing him. Although his estimate of the enemy strength was incorrect, his miscalculation was not immediately apparent to him or to any of the American leadership. It took three days of assaults by Bravo and Charlie Companies, each bloodily repulsed, before the situation became clearer. The enemy was stronger than anticipated, much stronger than company strength, and he grew more powerful every night as he received reinforcements from Laos. The NVA commander’s demonstrated tenacity and willingness to replace heavy losses indicated he intended to put up a stiff ? ght for Hill 937 (Scalard).

The Different Techniques A Translator Use English Language Essay

The Different Techniques A Translator Use English Language Essay The purpose of the following chapter is to provide a theoretical background to support the different techniques a translator use during the translation process. Moreover, it will develop information related to the text analysis, translation methods, and translation techniques. All this information will help the reader to have a better understanding about what has been established by the experts and how this can help translators to achieve a translated text that can be understood with accuracy and effectiveness. Moreover, this chapter will add the information related to the glossary creation and its relevance not only to the translator by itself but to the translation process as well, creating a big difference in the quality and consistency within and across the text, minimizing the amount of time spent on the research and correction of the terms and in along with making the text content understandable, so both the reader and the translator can be at the same basis in meaning and simultaneously reduce errors while understanding the texts. Finally, it will refer to the relationship between the theories explained and the research questions provided in Chapter 1. The intention of this final section is to explain how this information will be used to gather the required data and also to design the instruments for the data collection, which will be presented in Chapter 3. 2.1. Text analysis It is the process of decoding the text to be translated. According to Nord (2005 ) Most writers on translation theory agree that before embarking upon any translation the translator should analyse the text comprehensively, since this appears to be the only way of ensuring that the source text has been completely and correctly understood. This is mainly because every work is different and translators need to really grasp the intention of the author as well as the meaning of the text by itself so understanding the main point in the source piece would provide a natural and accurate translation. Newmark ´s (1988) discussion regarding the analysis of a text, mention that the purpose of reading the original, is first to understand what the text is about and second to analyze the text from a translator point of view, to determine a suitable translation method, so the intention of the text can be understood. Which is complete different from a linguists or literary critics, now that to translate it is necessary to determine the intention of the writer in order to identify the correct methods of translation. Furthermore, he mention important steps at the time of understanding the text; close and general reading are necessary to capture the essence of the text, familiarize and find additional facts. Moreover there is the close reading, where the translator need to analyses the text, required for words both in and out of context, everything that does not have a good sense needs to be looked up. Translation is compare to an iceberg, the translation is just the top, but the research and investigation of the translator is what holds the top, that can never been see. 2.1.1 Text Styles To translate a whole text accurately it requires consideration of its context and resulting features, such as style. Newark (1988) points out Nidas four types of literary or non-literary texts: a) Narrative: a dynamic sequence of events, where the emphasis is on the verbs or for English dummy or empty verbs plus verb-nouns or phrasal verbs (He made a sudden appearance, He burst in) b) Description: is static, with emphasis on linking verbs, adjectives, adjectival nouns. c) Discussion: a treatment of ideas, with emphasis on abstracts nouns (concepts), verbs of thought, mental activity (consider, argue, etc), logical argument and connectives. d) Dialogue: with emphasis on colloquialism and phaticisms. 2.1.2 Stylistic Scales The stylistic scale is one of the main aspects when translators analyze the text; this is because it helps the translator to identify the type of readers the text would be addressed to, as well as the vocabulary that would be needed in the translation. 2.1.2.1 Scale of formality Based on Newmark (1988) the following are examples of the scale of formality: Officialese The consumption of any nutriments whatsoever is categorically prohibited in this establishment. Official The consumption of nutriments is prohibited. Formal You are requested not to consume food in this establishment. Neutral Eating is not allowed here. Informal Please dont eat here Colloquial You cant feed your face here. Slang Lay off the nosh. Taboo Lay off the fucking nosh. 2.1.2.2 Scale of generality or difficulty Newmark (1988) also points out specific types in the scale of generality: Simple The floor of the sea is covered with rows of big mountains and deep pits. Popular The floor of the oceans is covered with rows of big mountains and deep pits. Neutral A graveyard of animal and plant remains lies buried in the earths crust. Educated The latest step in vertebrate evolution was the tool-making man. Technical Critical path analysis is an operational research technique used in management Opaquely technical (comprehensible only to an expert) Neuraminic acid in the form of its alkali-stable methoxy derivative was first isolated by Klenk from gangliosides. 2.2.3 Scale of Emotional tone Keeping on Newmark (1988) perspective, he defined three scales of emotional tone which are: Intense: (profuse use of intensifiers): absolutely wonderful, ideally dark bass, enormously successful, superbly controlled, gentle, soft, heart-warming melodies. Factual: (cool): Significant, exceptionally well judged, personable, presentable, considerable. Understandable: notà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦undignified (Understatement) On the other hand, Newmark (1988) also mentioned the importance of the attitude for evaluations and recommendation texts now that there is a thin line in the critical difference between positive or negative opinions for a translator, for this reason is necessary to establish the standards of the writer. In addition, the translator must be sure that the expressions are understood in the target text taking into consideration if they are positive, neutral, or negative. 2.1.3 Text function The text function provides to the reader the idea of what the text is about, and also what the author is trying to transmit them. For this reason it is very important for the translator to recognize as well the source text function to reproduce the same effect for the target readers. Newmark (1988) mentioned Buhler functional theory of language where three main functions of language are explained: expressive, the informative, and finally the vocative. 2.1.3.1 Informative The main factor of the informative function of language is the fact of the topic and the explanation of the author. As Newmark (1988) states the typical informative texts are about any topic of knowledge. He explained that the format of an informative text is standard such as: a textbook, a technical report, an article in a newspaper or a periodical, a scientific paper, a thesis, minutes or agenda of a meeting. It is important to leave the text naturally in order to understand the information, at the end, the objective of an informative text is to teach readers about a specific subject matter. He also mentions that informative text has 4 scales of language varieties: First, a formal, non-emotive, technical style for academic papers. This scale is characterized by passives, present and present perfect tenses, literal language, Latinized vocabulary, jargon, multi-noun compounds with empty verbs and no metaphors. Neutral or informal style with defined technical terms of textbooks characterized by first person plural, present tense, dynamic active verbs, and basic conceptual metaphors. An informal warm style for popular science or art books characterized by simple grammatical structures, a wide range of vocabulary to accommodate definitions and numerous illustrations, and stock metaphors and a simple vocabulary. And finally, a familiar, non-technical style for popular journalism, characterized by surprising metaphors, short sentences, Americanese, unconventional punctuation, adjectives before proper names and colloquialisms. 2.1.3.2 Expressive Newmark (1988) stated that expressive function is more related to the feelings of the author, the mind of the speaker and the writer. He categorized three different aspects of the expressive function: 1. Serious imaginative literature: Of the four principal types -lyrical poetry, short stories, novels, plays lyrical poetry is the most intimate expression, while plays are more evidently addressed to a large audience, which, in the translation, is entitled to some assistance with cultural expressions. 2. Authoritative statements: These are texts of any nature which derive their authority from the high status or the reliability and linguistic competence of their authors. Such texts have the personal stamp of their authors, although they are denotative, not connotative. Typical authoritative statements are political speeches, documents etc., by ministers or party leaders; statutes and legal documents; scientific, philosophical and academic works written by acknowledged authorities. 3. Autobiography, essays, personal correspondence: These are expressive when they are personal effusions, when the readers are a remote background Also, he recommends that the translator needs to make a distinction about the personal components of the texts, for example: collocations, originals metaphors, neologisms, and so on. 2.1.3.3 Vocative The vocative function is related to calling upon the reader to react of what was written. Based on Newmark (1988) the core of this function is the readership, and has been given lots of other names such as: conative (denoting effort), instrumental (instrumental), operating, and pragmatic (in the sense of used to produce a certain effect on the readership). Examples of a vocative function of language are notices, instructions, publicity, propaganda, persuasive writing where the main objective is to sell to entertain the addressee. In the vocative text the vital for the writer is the reader now that it target directly to the reader, the use of you is common to develop and influence in the person. Newmark mention to facts in vocative text there are also 2 vocative texts. First, the vocative text is the connection between the writer and reader using some forms, infinitives, imperatives, subjunctives, indicatives, impersonal, passives, and tags, all those examples playing a part in asymmetrical or symmetrical relationship. The second factor is that this source of text needs to be writing in the easy comprehensible form for the reader, the translator need to take in consideration the linguistic and cultural level of the reader. 2.1.4 Type of translation The application of the translation methods will transform the source text to an available target text for wider readers and make communication possible among the speakers of the different languages. Newmark (1988) mentioned that several scholars have been trying to identify what are the best translation methods, whether to translate literally or freely. No matter what techniques or methods are used, the translators job is to maintain a faithful target text. Even though, there are different translation methods, this chapter will develop only two of them: semantic translation and communicative translation. 2.1.4.1 Semantic translation According to Newmark (1988) semantic translation differs from faithful translation only in as far as it must take more account of the aesthetic value (that is, the beautiful and natural sounds of the SL text, compromising on meaning where appropriate so that no assonance, word-play or repetition jars in the finished version. Further, it may translate less important cultural words by culturally neutral third or functional terms but not by cultural equivalents une nonne repassant un corporal may become a nun ironing a corporal cloth and it may make other small concessions to the readership. The distinction between faithful and semantic translation is that the first is uncompromising and dogmatic, while the second is more flexible, admits the creative exception to 100% fidelity and allows for the translators intuitive empathy with the original. 2.1.4.2 Communicative translation This method is use to render the exact contextual meaning of the source language to the target language is such form that both languages and content are acceptable and comprehensible to the reader. Newmark (1988) He comments about the last to methods (semantic and communicative), they fulfill the main aims of translation (accuracy and economy). In the cases of semantic translation the translator writes as the level of the author, but the communicative translation is base in the reader and his needs. Semantic in common use for expressive texts, in the case of communicative is usually use in informative and vocative texts. These 2 methods treat the following items similarity: stock and dead metaphors, normal collocations, technique terms, slang, colloquialism, standard notice, phaticisms, and ordinary language. 2.2 Translation techniques The translation process is not an easy task; however, translators can count with many types of techniques in order to provide a high quality final work. It is important to mention, that translators must ensure they managed the techniques in a proper way, so the meaning of the target text will not have coherence problems. In this part of the chapter the different type of translation techniques develop by authors like Peter Newmark, Vasquez Ayora and Lopez Guix will be explain. All they points of view will by explain and compare to demonstrate the differences between each technique and the importance of each one. 2.2.1 Transposition For Và ¡zquez-Ayora (1977), the purpose of the transposition is to achieve expression naturalness for the target text, in all levels like lexical, structure and the context, and also can be defined as the procedure where a part of speech of the source text is replaced in the target text. Moreover, Newmark (1988) aims different types of transposition or shift (term used by Catford) such as: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Change from singular to plural: furniture to des muebles à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Change in the position of the adjective: la maison blanche to the white house à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ When the source text contains a grammatical structure that does not exist in the target text: il viente de le faire to recently. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ When literal translation is grammatically possible but may not accord with natural usage in the target text: Il ne tardera pas a renter to He will come back soon And he concludes that transposition is the only procedure that is related to grammar, and normally translators use this method intuitively. In order to have an integral knowledge about the varieties of transposition, here are exemplified some of the varieties which were mentioned by Và ¡zquez-Ayora (1977): 2.2.1.1 Abverb/Verb The application of hard work should eventually produce a heaven on earth La aplicacià ³n del trabajo diligente acabarà ­a por producir un paraà ­so en la tierra 2.2.1.2 Abverb/Noun That wont be often enough Eso serà ­a demasiada frecuencia 2.2.1.3 Abverb/Adjective The genuine international body El genuino cuerpo internacional 2.2.1.4 Verb or Past Participle/Noun We havent hear from him for a long time No hemos tenido noticias suyas por mucho tiempo 2.2.1.5 Adverb/Adjective We will attempt to be brief; relying on subsequent discussion to clarify points whichà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Trataremos de ser breves, confiados en que las discusiones subsiguientes podremos esclarecer 2.2.1.6 Verb/Adverb There used to be an inn there Habà ­a hace mucho allà ­ una posada 2.2.1.7 Noun/Verb or Past Participle During the remainder of the term Hasta que expire el mandato 2.2.1.8 Adjective/Noun It was another busy day beginning Comenzaba otro dà ­a de ajetreos 2.2.1.9 Adjective/Verb He pulled sharply upward into a full loop Ascendià ³ agudamente hasta completar un giro 2.2.1.10 Past Participle/Adjective Improved inputs Insumos mejores (o de mejor calidad) 2.2.2 Modulation According to Newmark (1988), modulation is defined by Vinay and Darbelnet as: a variation through a change of viewpoint, of perspective (eclairage) and very often of category of though. Standard modulation is recorded bilingual dictionaries, Newmark mention that free modulation is been use by translators when a target language reject the literary translation, there are eleven categories of modulation lists, but Newmark focus in just one negated contrary, as positive for double negative, is a concrete translation procedure which can be applied in any action (verb, adjective or adverb). Newmark (1988), mention that translations are free and double negative is not a forceful as the positive, the double negative depends of the voice, for that reason this modulation must depend on its formulation and the context. There are lexical gaps, but this modulation is virtually mandatory, the procedure is potentially available, but can be use when the translation is not natural, in other cases the procedures can be used. The second modulation procedure according to Vinay and Darbelnets is part of the whole, and it is explains by Newmark (1988) as: misleadingly described; it consists of what I can familiar alternatives. Newmark (1988) name the other modulation procedures: Abstract for concrete Cause for effect One part for another Reversal of terms Active for passive Intervals and limits Change of symbols The active for passive procedures is considering a transposition by Newmark (1988), it is mandatory when passive do not exist. There is important to mention that Newmark consider the categorization did by Vinay and Darbelnet incorrect. On the other hand the definition and categorization of modulation by Lopez Guix (1997), is the same definition of Newmark originated from Vinay and Darbelnet. But it is also define as a transposition in terms of the message due to the categories of thinking instead of grammar. In the procedures mention before the difficulties rising due to structure of two different linguistics systems, to all this is have to be add the linguistic and cultural specifications. Metonymic transfer (spatial contiguity, temporal or causal relationship between the original and the translations) Synecdoche or inclusion (this transformation is more common in English since this language is more direct, concrete) Reversal of terms (the change became the appositive) Negated contrary to create an affirmation (It is common in English, the use is not mandatory, the used depends of the context) Active for passive (English prefer the passive voice, opposite to Spanish which reject the passive voice) Change of symbols (this procedure let the translator to about the estrangement and desfamiliarization at the time to transform the sentences) The change from a casual for to an educated form (this is a common change from English to Spanish) Lopez Guix (1997) Another author is Vasquez Ayora (1977) he consider modulation as way to fight the literalism. Stylistic compare notion, it is a conceptual based inside a proposition, without changing the meaning, which is a different point of view from the translator using a different metaphor. Like Guix and Newmark, Ayora (1977), base is analysis with the same explanation of Vinay and Darbelnet. Ayora also mention that a different point of view will be the linguistic analysis. To this explanation we can add the hypothesis of George Mounin (1970) which said different point of view different analysis of text. Ayora consider transposition and modulation the most important procedures of translation. The categorization of modulation from Ayora is: Abstract for concrete Cause for effect One part the whole One part for another Inversion de terminus Negated contrary Form, aspect and used Change of symbols Symbols, in this case Ayora (1977) subdivide this procedure in: Passive to active Complement and configuration phrases Hypotactic and paratactic order Question and affirmation marks Director indirect speech Exocentric and endocentric expressions Figurate and direct vision Figurate vision to another Direct vision to figure Animism to inanimismo 2.2.3 Omision and amplificacià ³n Some of the translation methods are mainly used to resolve some reciprocation issues in order to convey the meaning and fit into the target language. A non-expert translator is more oriented to literal translation because of his/her fear or lack of knowledge about the different types of methods; however, in translation the objective is to respect the ideas in order to convey the meaning and not to be focused only on the words. One of the procedures that help translator to be more natural is omission, since as Và ¡zquez-Ayora (1977) says it is often ignored or underused. He also adds that omission obeys to the linguistic principle of saving and the requirement of naturalness of equivalence in the target language. Furthermore, Và ¡zquez-Ayora presents different types of omission, some examples below: 2.2.3.1 Omission of Abusive Redundancies In many cases companies profit from the research grants Muchas compaà ±Ãƒ ­as sacan provecho de las donaciones para la investigacià ³n 2.2.3.2 Omission of Repletion Georgette smiled that wonderful smile, and we shook hand all round (Hemingway) Georgette tuvo una maravillosa sonrisa y todos nos dimos la mano 2.2.3.3 Omission of Auxiliary can I can hear music in the next room Oigo mà ºsica en la otra oficina 2.2.3.4 Different Examples of Omission: The implications of increasing interdependence among nations Las implicaciones de la creciente interdependencia de las naciones (o de la dependencia entre naciones The only other nomination made so far is that of the Argentinian Ambassador La à ºnica candidatura propuesta hasta ahora es la del Embajador de Argentina In contrast, the addition method is opposed to saving, without neglecting the natural tone of the target text, where more lexemes and morphemes (words or symbols) are used in the final text to express the same idea. There are also several types of addition, according to Và ¡zquez-Ayora (1977); however, only some of them will be mentioned: 2.2.3.5 Adverb Addition I told her that life here is not interesting Le dije que la vida en esta ciudad carece de interà ©s 2.2.3.6 Verb Addition I dont know what you mean No sà © lo que quieres decir 2.2.3.7 Adjective Addition I intent to discuss the economy of your programs Deseo discutir la economà ­a de las propagandas que ustedes dirigen 2.2.4 Explicitacion Explicitation is used by translators to express what is implicit from the source text to the target text. According to Và ¡zquez-Ayora (1977), the English language owns high levels of semantic and meta-linguistic aspects that need to be explicit in Spanish, meaning that English has linguistic concentration of thought advantages over Spanish, so if these elements are not clear, the target text can be vague. Moreover, Và ¡zquez-Ayora adds that the main objective of this method is explain and be specific; however, he emphasizes that this procedure cannot be used overused, since if the message from the source text is hidden, it should be translated as the original paper in order to not loss the accuracy. Below some examples: He shook his head can be translated as Movià ³ la cabeza afirmativamente A need for specific skills can be translated as Necesidad de personal especializado en ramos especificos Their long journey halfway across the world can be translated as El largo viaje que habia de conducirles a travez del mundo 2.2.5 Traduccion literal For this term Newmark consider literal translation as a technique and best option to translating text where the form is important as the content of great speeches, autobiographies and literary works. Guix (1977) explain the literary translation with the words of Vinay and Darbelnet, is the transfer word by word respecting the linguistic bonded of the target language. Guix (1977) also mention that literal translation is interlineal. In the case of Ayora (1997) he explains that literal translation is a procedure in which the translator need to involved a parallel structure and concept, this is not word for word translation. 2.2.6 Falsas anà ¡logas Both languages, Spanish and English, have thousands of words that are the same or alike in form and also have the same meaning, this group is known as cognates. On the other hand, there are another group of words that are deceiving and look similar, but the meaning is quite different, these are known as false cognates or false friends. These false cognates can cause translation problems, so the translator needs to be very careful when encountering words that seem to be the same in both languages; therefore, it is better to not assume the meaning of the words and also recommends reviewing the words in a monolingual dictionary first. 2.3 Glossaries The Merriam Webster dictionary define glossary as a collection of textual glosses or of specialized terms with their respective meanings a list that gives definitions of the hard or unusual words found in a book. But glossaries are much more, they are exceptional tools for translators, as they help in the selection of appropriate terms during the translation process, now that are customized dictionaries with a list of terms in a special subject or field with its definitions , uses, and associated notes in the target language . Glossaries are used by translators working on difficult text with specific terminology; these lists of terms could also include any company or product specific content ranging from standard abbreviations, names, technical terms and phrases; software strings; legal terms; ingredient lists; catalogue items; and more depending on the field of the translation. Plus other identifying information such as context or reference that may also be included. In this section specific aspects of the glossary would be explained such as its relevance not only for the translator but as for the translation process, in addition to the procedures for translators to create a glossary. 2.3.1 Relevance for the translator According to Gapper (2008) Translators are not required to know the precise meaning of all existing words; especially when working with specialized text such as: institutional translations, papers from the area of politics, commerce, finance, and medicine; so even the best translator may find difficult translating specific concepts or catch phrases if he is not acquainted to that particular topic or field. That is why, translators should have at hand the necessary tools to develop an accurate translation and the glossary is the ideal tool, now that it helps translators to make sure that each time a defined key term appears, in any language, it is used consistently and correctly in addition it ensures that those difficult terms that will be needed by the reader are write down in an easy way helping to better understand the document topic and concepts. 2.3.2 Relevance for the translation process: In the field of translation, the use of a glossary to maintain consistency is really important and can make a big difference in the quality and coherence of the translated document. Access to reliable and accurate terminology is fundamental to minimize the spent of time on researching and correcting the terms that can be so time consuming, in that way the glossary is useful by saving time and effort to the translators, in addition to ensure consistency within and across the text documents. And all this is to produce an understandable content to readers, helping the text to communicate effectively its message to the audience. 2.3.3 How to create a glossary? For the purpose of explaining in a clear and specific way the creation of the glossary, some important recommendations made by Gapper (2008) would be mentioned The first step proposed by Gapper (2008) consists on determining what is needed in order to create a preliminary design; this will help to define the project scope and an efficient time management, especially if the project will be delivered for a specific organization. In this way, the translator can ensure a high quality work. According to Gapper (2008), the gathering information process will allow the person or translator to have a vast knowledge of what is required. Once all this information is compiled, it is also necessary to have the data documented and systematically archived. At this point, the translator can go over with the glossary creation based on the requirements and the users that were defined during the first stage. Below, the specific steps to generate a glossary based on Gapper (2008) recommendation: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Determine the purpose of the glossary (users, used, where and under what circumstances will be used? what institution will be benefit? and so on) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Define the content (terms, information regarding the terms) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Additional information, if required (singular/plural, dramatics, usage, and so on) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Format Definition In addition, according to Gapper (2008) another important decision will be to delineate what type of information will be included for each term. The inclusion of equivalences can result should enrich the glossaries, due to there are some words vary in different countries with the same spoken language; she also suggests that a glossary can include examples on how to use a specific term, this can help as a comparison with other terms, and also idiomatic expressions can be included to guide the user. On the other hand, aspects about the format need to be analyzed, here, is important to consider aspects like: the use of caps, parenthesis, and alphabetic order. The last step based on Gapper (2008) recommendation is the verification stage, so before delivering the final version it is needed a meticulous review of the work performed, in the first reading the content should be review to ensure the information is truthful and accurate, and then it guarantees that was offered in a clear and consistent way, the second reading is basically focused on the usage of language and the format aspects. G

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Human Trafficking Human trafficking which is commonly referred as â€Å"modern-day slavery† is a trade in humans in the form of prostitution, sexual exploitation, forced labor or even for the extraction of organs. Here in this country, people are being abducted, bought, and sold like slaves to be forced into all forms of servitude. The U.S Department of Justice stated that â€Å"human trafficking has become the second fastest growing criminal industry — just behind drug trafficking — with children accounting for roughly half of all victims† (Baldas, Human trafficking a growing crime in the U.S). It is not only happening in the States but it is also a worldwide phenomenon. To think that human trafficking may be happening even in our own neighborhood, for us being unaware as we go about our daily lives is unimaginable. Human traffickers generate billions of dollars per annum by victimizing countless people all around the world. Human trafficking is illegal in any way or anywh ere as it is a massive violation to human rights. People may still wonder that how can human trafficking still exist in the 21st century. There are various causes that make adults and children vulnerable to exploitation. However, human trafficking does not exist mainly because of the victims’ vulnerability to exploitation. Instead, just like drugs and arms trafficking, human trafficking is a market-driven industry which is based on the principles of supply and demand. Joyce Hart stated that â€Å"when there is a demand for services, human traffickers will eagerly fill it with slaves or very low-cost workers† (26). It is a highly sophisticated and organized crime industry with low risk and high profit, which are the main two factors that cause its demand to thrive. When the i... ...he 21st century, it is also expanding. Everyone should do their part in order to prevent more people being exploited and protect them. One of the main reasons that many of these traffickers are not being prosecuted is because a lot of victims are too traumatized or terrified to testify against their own abusers. Therefore, â€Å"police and criminal justice staff need standard working procedures to guarantee the physical safety of victims, protect their privacy and make it safe for them to testify against their abusers† (UNODC). Even for normal citizens, there are also ways to help fight against human trafficking such as contacting respective authorities if knowing of a potential human exploitation, changing purchasing options, or start a fundraiser and donate the funds to an anti-trafficking organization. These people need our help and together we can make a difference.

A View From the Bridge - Arthur Miller - Catherines diary :: English Literature

A view from the bridge- Arthur miller Catherine's diary September 18th 1937 Y' know I was sitting down today and Eddie comes in from work, looked really tired. I had just dressed in my new dress that I bought for my new job and I had done my hair in a different style, it looked really good. I asked him what he thought of it, and do you know what he said? He said the skirt was too short and the heels were too attention drawing. He even told me I'm walking wavy and that he doesn't like the way I have been attracting looks from the people in the shops, I told him they look at every girl that way but this only seemed to infuriate him more. What's up with him these days, he doesn't let me do anything. When's he going to realize that I'm not a little kid anymore? I just want him to approve of me and it makes me so upset when he doesn't, why cant he be like my friends' fathers and let me have more freedom? I'm not saying I don't appreciate him and how hard he's worked and that he took me in and all but sometimes he's just makes me so annoyed. Anyway, he told me that Beatrice's cousins should be arriving today, I'm so excited, and I can't wait. I wonder what they're going to be like. Marco and Rodolfo are their names but that's all I know about them apart from that Marco has kids. You'll never guess what Eddie and Beatrice were arguing about today just after Eddie told Beatrice about her cousins. They argued about where the Beatrice's cousins were going to sleep. I mean can't B just stop moaning at Eddie, he's a good man and she just doesn't appreciate him but they settled it and they made up. I told Eddie about the job, he was so not pleased. He wants me to finish the stenography class. I want to work, I'll be getting paid $50 per week, think of what I could do with that money. It's such a privilege to be chosen out of the whole class, they said I was the best that they saw there so I could still get my certificate at the end of the year, plus there's nothing better than putting what I've learnt into practice. I want Eddie to be happy for me, can't he see that it's impossible to turn the job down, I just can't, for goodness sakes . It's not like I'm going to be working in a bad company, it's

Stephen Edwin King :: essays research papers

Stephen Edwin King The second son of Donald and Nellie Ruth Pillsbury King was born on 1974 in Portland, Maine. His name was Stephen Edwin King. After his parents serpertion as a toddler, Stephen and his older brother, David, were raised by his mother. Stephen, David, and their mother lived in Fort Wayne, Indiana, which was where Stephen's father's side of the family lived. They then moved to Stratford, Connecticut, that was where Stephen King spent most of his childhood paying frequent visits to his mother's side of the family that resided in Malden, Massachusetts and Pownal, Maine. Around his 11th anniversary Stephen's mom moved to Durham, Maine, along with Stephen and his brother, to take care of her parents, whom were to old to take care of themselves. Stephen's school days were spent in the Durham Grammar School. He then attended Lisbon Falls High School, graduating in 1966. He went to college at the University of Maine at Orono, at which, during his spophomore year, he worte a weekly column for THE MAINE CAMPUS. During his years at college he was opposed to the war in Vietnam, declaring it unconstitutional. After his graduation in 1970 Stephen had aquired a Bachelor of Science in English and immediately was qualified to teach at the high school level. As a student Stephen worked at the Folger Library, which was on the University of Maine at Orono's campus. While working he met a fellow employee named Tabitha Spruce, who he married in Janurary 1971. Stephen King's first publication was a short story he wrote and sent to a men's magazine. This is where his first profit from writing came from, throughout the few years after his graduation he worte stories and sold them to men's magazines. All of these short stories would be later gathered into a collection known as the "Night Shift collection." In the fall of '71 King was hired as a teacher at Hampden Academy, a public high school in Hampden, Maine. He still found time to write short stories and work on his novel on the weekends and evenings. King's first big break came on the spring of 1973 upon the acceptence of Doubleday & Co. to publish Stephen King's novel Carrie. After learning from his new editor, Bill Thompson, that a major paperback sale would make him financially secure enough to quit teaching, Stephen moved his now growing family to southern Maine because of his grandmother's ever growing sickness. During the writing of Salem's Lot

Decision Driven Organisation

The Decision-Driven Organization Harvard Business Review – June 2010 The subject discussed in the article â€Å"Decision–Driven Organization† is that structural reorganizations should be done based on the decisions that matter the most to the organization instead of the goals that the organization is trying to reach. The coauthors stressed on how important this issue is and that it should be taken into consideration by organizations while preparing for reorganization since.As shown in the examples provided, a lot of companies went through structural changes for the wrong reasons aiming at a better performance and ended up decreasing it instead of increasing it. On the other hand, the examples about decision-driven reorganization had better results in improving the company’s performance.The coauthors focused in specific on the reasons why reorganization should be done around the set of critical decisions for an organization and supported it with examples an d surveys about reputed companies showing that reorganizations around goals failed in view of the facts that it ignored the decision making process and that performance and structure don’t have a strong relationship. The arguments that the authors used to demonstrate his point are the performance and the importance of decisions.As per the coauthors, the main goal of all reorganization is to reach better performance. What the managers fail to see is, that the performance of an organization is not only determined by the organization’s structure; as shown by the examples provided in this article, sometimes changing the structure to meet a certain goal can slow the decision making and create problems rather than help solve them which results in a poor performance.The methodology used in this point is very convincing especially that it shows the result of a survey conducted on a large amount of organizations worldwide, and the coauthors added a short test to give the reader s the ability to compare the result of their organization to the result of those who were subject to the survey. The coauthors also debated the fact that using a SWOT analysis is not the right tool to be used while starting reorganization and suggested to start it with decision audit instead; a decision audit is done by considering two types of critical decisions, big decisions which have separately a major impact and small decisions which have altogether an important impact; and then, if and only if reorganization is necessary it should be applied where the decisions matter the most. The authors also supported this suggestion with an actual example dated from 2006 which strengthened their point.Each suggestion in the decision audit was supported with an example which attracted the reader towards using this strategy. Another tool used by the coauthors to help the readers rethink twice before reorganizing a company is a small survey that should be conducted on the company in hand in order to check if the reorganization is needed or not. The authors also discussed how to conduct a decision-driven structure and what are the steps to be followed chronologically.